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II- materials
South Indian History‐Culture and
Heritage of Tamil people
SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS – I (PALLAVAS)
After the
decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the Kalabhra rule lasted for
about 250 years. Thereafter, the Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam
with its capital at Kanchipuram. Their rule continued till Tondaimandalam was
captured and annexed by the Imperial Cholas in the beginning of the tenth
century A.D.
Origin of the Pallavas
There are different views on the origin of the Pallavas.
They were equated with the Parthians, the foreigners who ruled western India.
Another view was that the Pallavas were a branch of the Brahmin royal dynasty
of the Vakatakas of the Deccan. The third view relates the Pallavas with the
descendents of the Chola prince and a Naga princess whose native was the island
of Manipallavam.
But these theories on the origin of the Pallavas were not supported by
adequate evidences.
Therefore, the view that the Pallavas were the
natives of Tondaimandalam itself was widely accepted by scholars. They are also
identical with the Pulindas mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka. When
Tondaimandalam was conquered by the Satavahanas, the Pallavas became their
feudatories. After the fall of the Satavahanas in the third century A.D., they
became independent. The Pallavas issued their earlier inscriptions in Prakrit
and Sanskrit because of their Satavahana connections, and also patronized
Brahmanism.
Political History
The early Pallava rulers from 250 A.D. to 350 A.D.
issued their charters in Prakrit. Important among them were Sivaskandavarman
and Vijayaskandavarman. The second line of Pallava rulers who ruled between 350
A.D. and 550 A.D. issued their charters in Sanskrit. The most important ruler
of this line was Vishnugopa who was defeated by Samudragupta during his South Indian
expedition. The rulers of the third line who ruled from 575 A.D. to their
ultimate fall in the ninth century issued their charters
both in Sanskrit and Tamil. Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line.
He destroyed the Kalabhras and firmly established the Pallava rule in
Tondaimandalam. He also defeated the Cholas and extended
the Pallava territory up to the river Kaveri. Other great Pallava
rulers of this line were Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, and Narasimhavarman
II. Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.) The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya
Conflict began during his period. Pulakesin II marched against the Pallavas and
captured the northern part of their kingdom. Although a Pallava inscription refers
to the victory of Mahendravarman I at Pullalur, he was not able to recover the
lost territory. ahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part of
his career. He was converted to Saivism by the influence of the
Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He built a Siva temple at
Tiruvadi. He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari
(builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa. He was a
great builder of cave temples. The Mandagappattu inscription hails him as
Vichitrachitta who constructed a temple for Brahma, Vishnu and Siva without the
use of bricks, timber, metal and mortar. His rock-cut temples are found in a
number of places like Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur, Pallavaram,
Mandagappattu and Tiruchirappalli. He had also authored the Sanskrit work
Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents
in painting. He is also regarded as an expert in music. The music inscription
at Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.
Narasimhavarman I (630-668
A.D.)
Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamalla, which
means ‘great wrestler’. He wanted to take avenge the defeat of his father at
the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. His victory over Pulakesin II in the
Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned in Kuram copper plates. The
Pallava army under General Paranjothi pursued the retreating Chalukya army,
entered Chalukya territory, captured and destroyed the capital city of Vatapi.
Narasimhavarman I assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’. He regained the lost
territory. Another notable achievement of Narasimhavarman I was his naval
expedition to Sri Lanka. He restored the throne to his friend and Sri Lankan
prince Manavarma.
During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram.
His description of Kanchi is vivid. He calls it a big and beautiful city, six
miles in circumference. It had 100 Buddhist onasteries in which about 10,000
Buddhist monks lived. According to his account the people of Kanchi esteemed
great learning and the Ghatika at Kanchi served as a great centre of learning.
Narasimhavarman I was the founder of Mamallapuram and the monolithic rathas
were erected during his reign.
Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha
(695 -722 A.D.)
Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by Mahendravarman II
and Parameswarvarman I and the Pallava – Chalukya conflict continued during
their reign. Thereafter, Narasimhavarman II became the ruler of the Pallava
kingdom. He was also known as Rajasimha. His regime was peaceful and he evinced
more interest in developing the art and architecture. The Shore temple at
Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were built in this
period. He was also a great patron of art and letters. The famous Sanskrit
scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court. He sent embassies to China
and the maritime trade flourished during his reign. Rajasimha assumed titles
like Sankarabhakta,
Vadhyavidyadhara and Agamapriya. He was succeeded by Parameswaravarman
II and Nandivarman II. The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the ninth
century A.D. The Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava ruler Aparajita
and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the rule of Pallava dynasty came to an
end.
Administration of the Pallavas
The Pallavas had a well organized administrative
system. The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottamwas administered
by officers appointed by the king. The king was at the centre of administration
in which he was assisted by able ministers. He was the fountain of justice. He
maintained a well-trained army. He provided land-grants to the temples known as
Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as Brahmadeya. It was also the
responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to
the lands. A number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings. The
irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of
Mahendravarman I. Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced
from the Pallava inscriptions. Land tax was the primary source of the
government revenue. The Brahmadeyaand Devadhanalands were exempted from tax.
Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers
and weavers paid taxes to the government. The Pallava inscriptions throw much
light on the village assemblies called sabhas and their committees. They
maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed
temples. Society under the Pallavas. The Tamil society witnessed a great change
during the Pallava period. The caste system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied
a high place in the society. They were given land-grants by the kings and
nobles. They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples.
The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also
the decline of Buddhism and Jainism. The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava
Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as
the Bakthi Movement. They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These
hymns revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi.
The construction of temples by the Pallava kings
paved the way for the spread of these two religions.Education and Literature
The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. Their capital Kanchi was an
ancient centre of learning. The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted
students from all parts of India and abroad. The founder of the Kadamba
dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi. Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer
came to study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the Nalanada
University, belonged to Kanchi. Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar lived in
the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin, another Sanskrit writer adorned the court of
Narasimhavarman II. Mahendravaraman I composed the Sanskrit play
Mattavilasaprahasanam.Tamil literature had also developed. The Nayanmars and
Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil. The Devaramcomposed by Nayanmars and
the Nalayradivyaprabandamcomposed by Alwars represent the religious literature
of the Pallava period. Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he
translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenbain Tamil. Nandikkalambagamwas
another important work but the name of the author of this work is not known.
Music and dance also developed during this period. Pallava Art and Architecture
It was a great age of temple building. The Pallavas
introduced the art of excavating temples from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian
style of temple architecture began with the Pallava rule. It was a gradual
evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathasand culminated in
structural temples. The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas
can be seen in four stages. Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples.
This style of Pallava temples are seen at places like Mandagappattu,
Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and
Tirukalukkunram.
The second stage of Pallava architecture is
represented by the monolithic rathasand Mandapas found at Mamallapuram.
Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monuments.
The five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five
different styles of temple architecture. The mandapas contain beautiful
sculptures on its walls. The most popular of these mandapas are
Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Madapam. In the
next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural temples. These temples were
built by using the soft sand rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the
Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of the early structural
temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the greatest
architectural master piece of the Pallava art.
The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented
by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple,
Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to this
stage of architecture. The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.
Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at
Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of
this period. The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a
fresco painting in stone. The minute details as well s the theme of these
sculptures such as the figures of lice-picking monkey, elephants of huge size
and the figure of the ‘ascetic cat’ standing erect remain the proof for the
talent of the sculptor.
Fine Arts
Music, dance and painting had also developed under
the patronage of the Pallavas. The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the
notation of vocal music. The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical
notes and instruments. The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various
musical notes. Dance and drama also developed during this period. The
sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures. The Sittannavasal
paintings belonged to this period. The commentary called Dakshinchitrawas compiled
during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title Chittirakkarapuli.
